2 Here is another application for the
Palmer-Godechot thesis, about the relative permeability of land
and sea in the eighteenth century. Maritime communications had
much improved since the middle ages, but travel over land was not
much better than in the world of the Romans. The argument of
Palmer and Godechot about the borders of the "Atlantic world"
also applies to the edges of the Irish Sea. See Jacques Godechot
and R. R. Palmer, "Le problŠme de l'Atlantique du XVllle au XXe
sicle," Relazioni del X Congresso Internazianale di Scienze
Storiche (Roma 4-11 Settemeqe 1955) (Florence, 1955), V, 175-239.
4 Bouch and Jones, Economic and Social History of the Lake
Counties, 2, 11, 16.
5 George Williams Diary, Ms. DX 124, CUMROC.
6 George M. Fraser, The Steel Bonnets, (New York 1972), 65.
9 Joan Thirsk, ea., Agrarian History of England and Wales,
(Cambridge, 1967), IV, 49.
10 Calendar of State Papers, Venetian, 1615-1617, 150.
12 Pevsner, Cumberland and Westmorland, 29.
16 Fraser, The Steel Bonnets, 66.
20 S.H. Scott, A Westmorland Village: The Story of the Old
Homesteads and "Statesman " Families of Troutoech by Windermere
(Westminster, 1904), 21. A statesman whose papers survive in the
Cumbria Record Office at Kendal was Benjamin Browne of
Westmorland (1664-1748).
21 Paul Brassley, "Northumberland and Durham," in Thirsk, ea.,
Agrarian History of England and Wales, Vol. 5, Part I, 49.
22 Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American
Empire, 1767-1821 (New York, 1977), 15; T.C.F. Darby, "The
Agrarian Economy of Westmorland" (thesis, Univ. of Leicester,
1965).
23 J.Leopold, "The Levellers' Revolt of Galloway in 1724," SLHSJ
14 (1980) 4-29.
24 Hughes, North Country Life in the Eighteenth Century: The
North East, . 700- i750. 16.
25 Hugh Boulton to Duke of Newcastle, 23 Nov. 1728, in Letters
Written by His Excellency Hugh Boulton, D.D. (2 vole., Dublin,
1770), 1, 225-26.
26 Dickson, Ukter Emigration, 76.
27 Jonathan Dickinson toJohn Asher, 22 Oct. 1717, Dickinson
Letterbook, 1715-1721, HSP. Charles A. Hanna, The Scotch-lrish;
or the Scot in North Bntain, North Ireland and North Ar~erica (2
vole., New York, 1902), II, 63.
28 Jonathan Dickinson to John Asher, 22 Oct. 1717, Dickinson
Letterbook, 1715-1721, HSP.
29 James Logan to John, Thomas and Richard Penn, 17 April 1731,
Penn Papers, Official Correspondence, Historical Society of
Pennsylvania; Frederick B. Tolles, Quakers and the Atlantic
Culture (New York, 1960), 126.
30 The evidence supports the McDonalds' conclusions that
comparatively few Germans migrated more than 300 miles from
Philadelphia. See McDonald and McDonald, "Commentary," 134. Other
scholars have replicated these results. John Campbell (The
Southern Highlander, 63) concluded from surnames in pension
lists, muster rolls and census tracts that in North Carolina and
Tennessee, the English and Scots-lrish were each about one-third
of the population; in Kentucky, the English were 40% and the
Scots- lrish 80%; in Georgia, English and Scotslrish were each
about 40% of all names. He reckoned that Germans accounted for
one- fifth of names in North Carolina, one-seventh in Tennessee
and one-twelfth in Kentucky. Even this estimate overcounts the
number of Germans. H. Roy Merrens (Colonial North Carolina in the
Eighteenth Century (Chapel Hill, 1964), 53-81) reckons that
Germans were between 2.8 and 4.7% of the population of North
Carolina as a whole, but 22.5% of two counties near the Moravian
Tract.
31 Bridenbaugh, who thought of them as Scotch-lrish, wrote, "Of
all the national groups the Scotch Irish were the most numerous,
and it is not surprising that in the long run they came to
dominate" the backcountry. McDonald and McWhiney thought of them
as Celts and concluded that they were dominant in North Carolina,
South Carolina, and other settlements to the south and west. See
Bridenbaugh, Myths and Realities, 132; McDonald and McDonald,
"Ethnic Origins," 199; idein, "Commentary," 133; Schaper,
Sectionalism in South Carolina, 43; Mitchell, "Upper Shenandoan
Valley," 218.
32 Some called it "the frontiers" in the conventional 18th-
century sense of a boundary between governments--a very different
meaning from the Turnerian usage. An exception was Benjamin
Franklin, who developed his own frontier thesis before 1760.
33 Hans Kurath, A Word Geography of the Eastern United States
(Ann Arbor, 1949); Craig M. Carver, American Regional Dialects; A
Word Ceography (Ann Arbor, 1987); Robert F. Dakin, "South Midland
Speech in the Old Northwest,"JEL 5 (1971), 31-48; C. Williams,
"Appalachian Speech," NCHR 55 (1978), 174-79.
34 Virginia Gazette, 22 Oct. 1772; Bridenbaugh, Myths and
Realities, 169.
35 An early description of backcountry speech ways so early as to
capture the language of the immigrants who had arrived in the
18th century was made by the American traveler Anne Royall, after
a visit to the region which she fancifully called "Grison
republic," and is now the state of West Virginia:
"To return to my Grison republic," she wrote, "their dialect sets
orthography at defiance, and is with difficulty understood; for
instance, the words by, my, rye, they pronounce as you would ay.
Some words they have imported, some they have made out and out,
some they have swapped for others, and nearly the whole of the
English language is so mangled and mutilated by them, that is
hardly known to be such. When they would say pretence, they say
lettinon is a word of very extensive use amongst them. It
signifies a jest, and is used to express disapprobation and
disguise; 'you are just lettinon to rub them spoons Polly is not
mad, she is only lettinon.' Blaze they pronounce bleez, one they
call waun, sugar shugger; 'and is this all it ye got?'
handkerchief hancorchy, (emphasis on the second syllable); and
'the two ens of it comed loose'; for get out of the way, they
say, get out of the road: Road is universally used for way; 'put
them cheers, (chairs) out of the road.' But their favorite word
of all, is hate, by which they mean the word thing; for instance,
nothing, 'not a hate not wann hate will ye's do.' What did you
buy at the stores ladies? 'Not a hate well you hav'nt a hate here
to eat.' They have the hickups, and corp, (corpse), and are a
(cute) people. Like Shakespeare they make a word when at a loss:
scawin'd is one of them, which means spotted." Anne Royall,
Sketch of the History, Life and Manners in the United States (New
Haven, 1826), I, 53; for other early descriptions of this dialect
see "Skitt," [H. E. Taliaferro], Fisher's Rover (North Carolina)
Scenes and Characters (New York, 1859); and Ralph Steele Boggs,
"North Carolina Folktales . . . ,"JAF47 (1934), 268-88.
36 Dial, "The Dialect of the Appalachian People," 463-71.
37 James Parton, Life of Andrew Jackon (3 vole., New York, 1859),
I, 47.
38 Honey as a term of endearment was also occasionally heard in
New England and the Chesapeake. But it was specially associated
with North British and Irish speech, and in the 18th century came
to be regarded as an "hibernianism."
39 J. H. Combs, "Old, Early and Elizabethan English in the
Southern Mountains," DN 4 (1913-17), 283-97; Thomas Pyles, The
Origins and Development of the English Language (New York, 1964).
40 W. Dickson, Glossary of Words and Phrases Pertaining to the
Dialect of Cumberland (London, n.d.); see also an anonymous
compilation, Westmorland and Cumb~ land Dialects, Dialogues,
Poems, Songs ~ Ballads by Various Writers in the Westmorland and
Cumbe land Dialect Now Collected with a Copious Clossary (London,
1839); and see W. Dickinson and E. W. Prevost, A Glossary of the
Words and Phrases Pertaining to the Dialect of Cumberland
(London, 1879); and Ann Wheeler, Westmorland Dialect . . .
(London, 1840), 130. Also valuable are writings in dialect by the
18th century "Cumberland Bard," Robert Anderson. Early
descriptive sources are more helpful for an historian's purposes
than 20th-century speech studies, which, though more refined in
their analytic tools, are less useful as a guide to past
patterns.
Patterns of grammar were also very much the same. Hughes notes,
for example, that the borderers "used the indefinite article
freely, e.g., 'he had a one."' See Hughes, North Country Life in
the Eighteenth Century: The North East, 37. An example of the
Northumbrian double negative appears in Fraser, Steel Bonnets,
72.
41 Ferguson, Northmen in Cumberland and Westmorland, 152-53; see
also Dickinson and Provost, A Glossary of the Words and Phrases
Pertaining to the Dialect of Cumberland, xxv.
42 Woodmason, Carolina Bacicountry, 16.
43 See H. B. Shurtleff, The Log Cabin Myth (Cambridge, Mass.,
1939). Log houses of various types appeared at an earlier date
throughout the colonies, often for special purposes such as forts
and jails and garrison houses, where walls of unusual thickness
were desired. Instances appear in the Archives of Maryland, 11
(1884), 224; North Carolina Colonial Records, I (1886), 300.
Germans also introduced log buildings, but these structures
differed from the classical log cabin in many ways. See C. A.
Weslager, The Log Cabin in America (New Brunswick, NJ., 1969);
Henry Glassie, "The Appalachian Log Cabin," MLW 39 (1963), 5-14;
idem, "The Types of Southern Mountain Cabin," in The Study of
American Folklore, ed. Jan H. Brunwand (New York, 1968), 338-70;
Fred Kniffen, "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion," AAAG 55 (1965),
549-77; Fred Kniffen and Henry Glassie, "Building in Wood in the
Eastern United States," GR 56 (1966) 40-66.
44 John Aston, "Diary," in "Six North Country Diaries,"
Publications of the Surtees Society 118 (1910), 31; for modern
discussions, see R. W. Brunskill, "The Clay Houses of
Cumberland," AMST 10 (1962), 57-80; Christopher Stell, "Pennine
Houses," FL 3 (1965), 5-24;James Walton, "Upland Houses: The
Influence of Mountain Tenrain on British Folk Building," AA 30
(1956), 142-48; Caoimh¡n ¢ Danachair, "The Combined Byre-and-
Dwelling in Ireland," FL 2 (1964), 58-75; Alan Gailey, "The
Peasant Houses of the South-west Highlands of Scotland:
Distribution, Parallels, and Evolution," C 3 (1962), 227-42; M.
W. Barley, The English Farmhouse and Cottage (London, 1961);
Henry Glassie, Pattern in the Material Folk Culture of the
Eastern United States (Philadelphia, 1968); idem, Folk Housing in
Middle Virginia (Knoxville, 1975); Carl Linsberg, "The Building
Process in Antebellum North Carolina," NCHR 60 (1983), 431-56.
45 John Major, Historia Majoris Britanniae tam Angliae q. Scotiae
...(Paris, 1521); tr. in P. l lume Brown, ea., Scotland before 1
700from Contemporary Documents (Edinburgh, 1893), 44.
46 Martin Wright, "The Antecedents of the Double Pen House Type,"
AAAG 48 (1958).
47 Leyburn has collected impressive evidence of continuities in
the vernacular architecture of the Scottish lowlands, quoting
Froissart in the 15th century that "after an English raid, the
country-folk made light of it, declaring they had driven their
cattle into the hills, and that with six or eight stakes they
would soon have new houses."
Of the 16th century, MacKenzie wrote that throughout Galloway,
cottages and cabins were "constructed of rude piles of
[drift]wood, with branches interwoven between them, and covered
on both sides with a tenacious mixture of clay and straw."
A report in 1670 noted that "the houses of the commonalty are
very mean, mud-wall and thatch, the best; but the poorer sort
live in such miserable huts as never eye beheld.... In some
parts, where turf is plentiful, they build up little cabins
thereof, with arched roofs of turf, without a stick of timber in
it; when the house is dry enough to burn, it serves them for
fuel, and they remove to another."
Of the 18th century it was written that the houses were "little
removed from hovels with clay floors, open hearths . . . only the
better class of farmers had two rooms, the house getting scant
light by two tiny windows."
Leybunn, The Scotch-lrish: A Social History, 18; P. Hume Brown,
Earl7 Travelers in Scotland (Edinburgh, 1891), 12-16; William
Mackenzie, History of Galloway from the Earliest Period to the
Present Time (2 vole., Kirkcudbright, 1841), I, 232; Harkian
Miscellany, Vl, 139; H. G. Graham, The Social Life of Scotland in
the Eighteenth Century (London, 1899), 182-83.
48 Woodmason, Carolina Backcountry, 31; William Byrd, The London
Diary (1717-1721) and Other Wntings (New York, 1958), 588-89;
Edmund Morgan, Virginians at Home (New York, 1952), 73; similar
observations were made two centuries later of Appalachian
families in industrial cities such as Baltimore and Detroit.
49 Leyburn, The Scotch-lrish; A Social History, 151.
50 Michael J. O'Brien and Dennis E. Lewarch, "The Built
Environment," in M. J. O'Brien ea., Grassland, Forest and
Historical Settlement (Lincoln, Neb., 1984), 231-65. Terry Jordan
Texas Log Building: A Folk Architecture (Austin, 1978); Wilbur
Zelinsky, "The Log House in Georgia," CR 43 (1953), 173-93;
Eugene M. Wilson, Alabama Folh Houses (Montgomery, Ala. 1975);
Donald A. Hutslar, The Log Architecture of Ohio (Columbus, 1977);
Charles McRaven Building the Hewn Log House (New York, 1978);
Fred Kniffen, "Louisiana House Types," AAAC 26 (1936), 1 79-93.
51 Amos Long, "Fencingin Rural Pennsylvania," PF 12 (1961),
30-35; Arthur Dobbs in Glonial Records of North Carolina, V, 262.
52 Bouch and Jones, Economic and Social History of the Lake
Countries, 33; Eugene Cotton Mather end John Fraser Hart, "Fences
and Farms," GR 44 (1954), 201-23.
53 Ernest Hudson, Barton Records (Penrith, 1951), 56; W. G.
Collingwood, The Lake Counties (London, 1902), 144; Scott, A
Westmorland Village, 64-65, Bouch andJones, Economic and Social
History of the Lake Countries, 108.
54 Shurtlelf, Log Cabin Myth, 185.
55 Bridenbaugh, Myths and Realities, 135.
56 Fraser, Steel Bonnets, 55-65 passim.
57 Robert Witherspoon, "Recollections," in H. Roy Merrens, ea.,
The South Carolina Scene: Contemporary Views, 1697-1774
(Columbia, S.C., 1977), 124. For another description of clan
migration, see Parton, Life of Andrew Jackson, I, 46.
58 Charles G. Sellers, James K Polk, Jacksonian, 1795-1843
(Princeton, 1957), 8-9.
59 Gilmer, First Settlers of Upper Ceorgia, 168.
60 Landsman, Scotland and Its First American Colony, 46.
61 1bid., 160.
62 Bouch and Jones, Economic and Social History of the Lake
Countnes, 30.
63 G.E. Braithwaite, "The Braithwaites," 10, LANCSRO.
64 Ibid., 153.
65 Woodmason, Carolina Bacico;untry, 39.
66 Arthur Dobbs to Board of Trade, 24 Aug. 1755, Colonial Records
of North Carolina, V, 355; somewhat smaller households are
reported in Alan D. Watson, "Household Size and Composition in
Pre-Revolutionar,v North Carolina," MQ 31 (1978), 551-69.
67 Yasukichi Yasuba, Birth Rates of the White Population in the
Uni¨ed States, 1800-1860 (Baltimore, 1962), 61-62, 131-32; Colin
Forster and G.S.L. Tucker, Economic Opportunity and White
American Fertility Ratios, 1800-1860 (New Haven, 1972), 40-41;
for the persistence of large and complex households in this
region during the nineteenth century, see William M. Selby,
Michael J. O'Brien and Lynn M. Snyder, "The Frontier Household,"
in Michael J. O'Brien, ea., Grassland, Forest and Historical
Settlement (Lincoln, Neb., 1984), 266-316. There is evidence of
large &mikes in Ulster, with as many as five males each on the
average; see Raymond Cillespie, Colonial Ulster: The Settlement
of East Ulster, 1600-1641 (Cork, 1985), 55.
68 Miles, The Spirit of the Mountains, 13-14.
69 Edward C. Banfield, The Moral Basis of a Backward Society (New
York, 1958), l 10.
70 W.D. Weatherford and Earl D. C. Brewer, Life and Religion in
Southern Appalachia (New York, 1962), 9.
71 0tis K. Rice, The Hatfields and McCoys (Lexington, 1978).
72 Charles G. Mutzenberg, Kentucky's Famous Feuds and Tragedies
(New York, 1917); S. S. McClintock, "The Kentucky Mountains and
Their Feuds," AJS 7 (1901), 1-28, 171-87; O. O. Howard, "The
Feuds in the Cumberland Mountains," 1 56 (1904), 783-88; Jenny
Wormald, "Blood Feud, Kindred and Government in Early Modern
Scotland," Past and Present 87 (1980), 54-97.
73 Patrick C. Power, Sex and Marriage in Ancient Ireland (Dublin
and Cork, 1976), 42-47.
74 Leyburn, The Scotch-Irish: A Social History, 32; R. Chambers,
Domestic Annals of Scotland (Edinburgh, 1858-61), I, 5.
75 David Ramsey, History of South Carolina from Its First
Settlement in 1670 to the Year 1808 (2 vole., Charleston,
1809),11, 600.
76 Mark Kaplanoff obtained the following estimates of mean age at
marriage from an ingenious analysis of the South Carolina census
of 1800, for marriages contracted in the population living at
that time.
District Males Females
Greenville 22.3 19.4
Newberry 21.4 19.1
Sumter 20.9 19.8
Source: Unpublished research, communicated by the kindness of
Mark Kaplanoff.
77 1n England before 1750, mean age at first marriage of women
was 26.9 in twenty-six southern parishes, and 23.5 in sixteen
northern parishes. Age at marriage was generally higher in all
British regions than in the American colonies, but relative
differences were much the same. See Michael W. Flinn, The
European Demographic System, 1500-1820 (Baltimore, 1981), 124-25.
77 Kercheval, Valley of Virginia, 268.
78 Alan D. Watson, "Women in Colonial North Carolina . . . ,"
NCHR 58 (1981), 1-22.
79 John Oldmixon also wrote that, throughout the backlands, "the
ordinary women take care of cows, hogs, and other small cattle,
make butter and cheese, spin cotton and flax, help to sow and
reap corn, wind silk from the worms, gather fruit and look after
the house"; The History of the British Empire in America in
Alexander S. Salley, Jr., Narratives of Early Carolina (I 911,
New York, 1967), 372.
80 Gentlemen's Magazine 36 (1766), 582.
81 Woodmason, Carolina Backcountry, 30, 61.
82 Ibid, 32.
83 Kercheval, Valley of Virginia, 257.
84 Woodmason, Carolina Backcountry,7,100.
85 Peter Laslett, "Long Term Trends in Bastardy in England," in
Family Life and Illicit Love in Earlier Generations (Cambridge,
1977), 142-46.
86 Salley, "The Grandfather of John C. Calhoun," 50.
87 OED, s.v., "tanistry."
88 Mackie, A History of Scotland, 33, 42, 65.
89 In the year 1806, Samuel Blodget estimated that annual crude
death rates per thousand by region as follows: Southern
highlands, 20-22; Boston, 20-21; Philadelphia, 20-23; Tidewater
south, 26-29. Samuel Blodget, Economica: A Statistical Manual
for the United States of America (Washington, 1806), 76.
90 1bid., 143.
91"lt is customary yet in some parts of the north of England to
place a plate filled with salt on the stomach of a corpse after
death." Charles Hardwick, Traditions, Superstitions and Folklore
(London, 1872), 181; see also Lowry C. Wimberly, Death and Burial
Lore in the English and Scottish Popular Ballads (Lincoln, Neb.,
Univ. of Nebraska Studies in Language, Literature and Criticism,
no. 8, 1927).
92 William Rollinson, Life and Tradition in the Lake District
(London, 1974), 56.
93 Parton, Arutrew Jackon, I, 42-43.
94 Scott, A Westmorlar~d Village, 78.
95 Will of John Wilson of Rosthwaite, 23 March 1763, ms. DX
241/108, CUMROC.
96 Daniel Fleming, Book ofAccounts, 15 April 1675, ms. 386,
WD/R/box 199, CUMROK.
97 Hudson, Barton Records.
98 "1f the murderer touches the corpse of a murdered man, it will
purge; therefore, have the suspect touch the corpse." North
Carolina Folklore, Vl, 490.
99 North Carolina Folklore, 1,258.
100 Dyer Journal, 24 Aug. 1767, 7 dune 1769, Ms. HSP.
101 Johnson, Antebellum North Carolina, 145-48.
102"The Presbyterians are the most numerous," _Informations
Concerning the Province of North Carolina..._ (Glasgow, 1773);
reprinted in Wm. K Boyd, ed., _Some Eighteenth Century Tracts Concerning
North Carolina_ (Raleigh, 1927), 450.
103 Thomas P. Ford, "Status, Residence and Fundamentalist Religious Beliefs in the Sourhtern Appalachians," _SF_ 39 (1960), 41-9.
104 George Williamson Diary, 18 January 1745, ms. CUMROC.
105 Witherspoon, "Recollections," 127.
106 Benjamin Ferris Journal, ca. 1777, ms HSP.
107"A Letter from a Blacksmith to the Ministers and Elders of the Church of Scotland," 1759, quoted in Robert T Fitzugh, _Robert Burns_ (Boston, 1970), 72.
108 Witherspoon, "Recollections," 127.
109 Woodmason, _Carolina Backcountry_, 95; Guion Griffis Johnson, "The Camp Meeting in Ante-bellum North Carolina," NCHR X (1933), 1-20; Robert Semple, _A History of the Rise and Progress of Baptists in Virginia_ (1810, rpt 1894), 23-4.
110 Wesley M Gewehr, _The Great Awakening in Virginia_, 1740-1790_ (Durham, 1930), 170.
111 Francis Asbury, _Journal_ I, 444, 447, 461, 493,612.
112 John B Boles, _The Great Revival, 1787-1805_ (Lexington, 1972); Dickson D. Bruce, _They All Sang Hallelujah_ (Knoxville, 1974).
113 Benjamin Ferris Journal, 1726, Ms., SWAR.
114Drake, _Pioneer Life in Kentucky_, 216.
115Kercheval, _Valley of Virginia_, 196, 253; Woodmason, _Carolina Backcountry_, 34, 173.
116Woodmason, _Carolina Backcountry_, 34, 173, 176, 196; Thomas Anburey, _Travels_ (2 vols, London, 1789), 340, 376; William Eddis, _Letters from America_ (1792, Cambridge, 1969), 57;
"Observations on Several Voyages and Travels to America," WMQ3 15 (1958), 146.
117John Gough, _The Manners and Customs of Westmorland_ (Kendal, 1827), 20; also _Ulster Journal of Archaeology_ II (1854), 204; Woodmason, _Carolina Backcountry_, 176, 34, passim.
118Redcliffe N. Salaman, _The History and Social Influence of the Potato_ (Cambridge, 1985); potatoes were not unknown in other food-cultures of British America, but they were not staples.
119 Ferguson, _Northmen in Cumberland and Westmorland_, 149; Rollinson, _Life and Traditions in the Lake District_, 38-40, 49.
120 Sam biBowers Hilliard, _Hog Meat and Hoecake: Food Supply in the Old South, 1840-1860_ (Carbondale, Ill., 1972).
121 Kercheval, _Valley of Virginia_, 253.
122 Chastellleux, _Travels_, II, 409, 19 April 1782.
123 Hudson, _Barton Records_, 56; John C Campbell, _The Southern Highlander and His Homeland_ (New York, 1921), 203.
124 Gomme, _Traditional Games of England, Scotland, and Ireland_, 183; William Dodd, ed, _Edenhall and People Who Have Lived There_ (n.p., 1974), 19, CUMBROC; Ferguson, _Northmen in Cumberland and Westmorland_, 150; Scott, _A Westmoreland Village_, 18.
125 Rollinson, _Life and Tradition in Lake District_, 161-2.
126 Parton, _Andrew Jackson_ I, 66.
127 Jacob Robinson and SIdney Gilpin, _Wrestling and Wrestlers_ (n.p., 1893).
128 Hugh W Mackell, _Some Records of the Annual Grasmere Sports_ (Carlisle, 1911), 15.
129 Thomas Ashe, _Travels in America, Performed in 1906_ (New York, 1811).
Hening, _Statutes_, VI, 250; VIII, 520.
131 Greenfield _Gazette_, 12 July 1800
132 Anburey, _Travels_, II, 217-8.
133 Ibid, II, 201-2.
134 Thomas Pennant, _A Tour of Scotland_ (London, 1790); qtd. in Grady McWhiney and Perry D. Jamieson, _Attack and Die: Civil War Military Tactics and the Southern Heritage_ (University, Ala., 1981), 183.
135 Witherspoon, "Recollections," 125.
136 For cowpens in Northumberland see Thisk, ed., _Agrarian History of England and Wales_, IV, 17, 27.
137 OED, "cowpens."
138 Schaper, _Sectionalism in South Carolina_, 59; Forrest McDonald and Grady McWhitney, "The Antebellum Southern Herdsman: A Reinterpretation," _JSH_ 41 (1975), 147-66; idem, "The South from Self-Sufficiency to Peonage: An Interpretation,"
_AHR_ 85 (1980), 1095-118; idem, "The Celtic South," _History Today_ 30 (1980), 11-15; Grady McWhiney, "Antebellum Piney Woods Culture: Continuity Over Place and Time," in Noel Polk, ed., _Mississippi's Piney Woods: A Human Perspective_ (Jackson, Miss., 1986), 40-59.
139 Parton, _Andrew Jackson_, I, 45-6; James Elerton, 1740, published in Elizabeth Poyas, _olden Time of Carolina_ (Charleston, 1855), and excerpts in Merrens, ed., _The Colonial South Carolina Scene_, 130-7.
140 Landsman, _Scotland and Its First American Colony_, 31, 44; Gillespie, _Colonial Ulster_, 60.
141Those statistics do not include movement within the county, nor were they much affected by mortality; Beeman, _Evolution of the Southern Backcountry_, 29-30, 67-70, 81-2.
142 Miles, _The Spirit of the Mountains_, 177; Remini, _Andrew Jackson_ I, 37.
143 Schoepf, _Travels_, II, 103.
144 John Hill Wheeler, _Historical Sketches of North Carolina_ (rpt. Baltimore, 1964), 438.
145 Andrew Jackson to Rachel Jackson, May 9, 1796, _Papers of Andrew Jackson_, I, 91.
146 Andrew Jackson to Martin Van Buren, 4 Dec. 1838, _Jackson Correspondence_, V, 573; W.H. Sparks, _The Memories of Fifty Years_ (Philadelphia, 1882) 147-8; Remini, _Andrew Jackson_, I, 11-2, 429.
147_North Carolina Folklore_, I, 472.
148 Selwyn G Champion, _Racial Proverbs_ (London, 1938), 59.
149 Woodmason, _Carolina Backcountry_, 28.
150 Richard M. Brown, "The American Vigilante Tradition," in _The History of Violence in America_, 154-226.
151 Mathews, _Dictionary of Americanisms_, 1010; A. Matthews in _CSM_, 27, 256-71.
152 Charles L. Wallas, _Stories on Stone_ (n.p., n.d.), 62.
153 _ALAR_ 12 (1959), 92; Clarence E. Carter, _Territorial Papers of the United States_ (27 vols., Washington, D.C., 1934-69), VI, 243-46, 268-9.
154 Edward Steel, "Criminality in Jeffersonian America--A Sample," _Crime and Delinquency_, 18 (1972), 154.
155 Campbell, _The Southern Highlander_, 119.
156 Garland F. Hopkins, _Cumberland County, Virginia_ (Winchester, 1942), 31.
157 Edward L Ayers, _Vengeance and Justice: Crime and Punishment in the Nineteenth-Century American South_ (New York, 1984), 111.
158 _North Carolina Folklore_. I, 500.
159 Parton, _Andrew Jackson_ I, 112-3.
160 Bridenbaugh, _Myths and Realities_, 132.
161 William Byrd, _History of the Dividing Line_, ed. William Boyd (Raleigh, 1929), 207.
162 Parton, _Andrew Jackson_, I, 163.
163 Norris W Preyer, _Herzekiah Alexander and the Revolution in the Backcountry_ (Charlotte, 1987), 66.
164 Schoepf, _Travels_, 238-9.
165 Richard Trappes-Lomax, "The Diary and Letterbook of the Rev. Thomas Brockbank, 1671-1719," _CHSP_ n.s. 89 (1930), 44.
166 George Harrison, "Every Man at Nature's Table Has a Right to Elbow Room," _FHSL_ 21 (1924), 27-30.